What is the biological perspective in psychology? — Explains behaviour in terms of genetics, brain structure, neurotransmitters, hormones, and evolution. Key methods: brain scans (MRI, fMRI), twin studies, lesion studies. Key figures: Paul Broca (language area), Roger Sperry (split-brain research).

What is the psychodynamic perspective? — Founded by Sigmund Freud. Behaviour is driven by unconscious conflicts, childhood experiences, and the interplay of id (instinctive drives), ego (rational mediator), and superego (moral conscience). Defense mechanisms protect the ego from anxiety.

What are Freud's five psychosexual stages? — Oral (0–1yr): Pleasure from feeding. Anal (1–3yr): Controlling bladder/bowel. Phallic (3–6yr): Oedipus/Electra complex. Latency (6–puberty): Sexual impulses suppressed. Genital (puberty+): Sexual maturity. Fixation at any stage causes adult personality issues.

What is the behavioral perspective? — Focuses only on observable behavior — mental processes are not studied. Behavior is learned through conditioning. Key figures: Pavlov (classical conditioning), Watson ("Little Albert"), Skinner (operant conditioning), Thorndike (law of effect).

What is classical conditioning? — Learning by association — a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a response. Pavlov's dogs: Bell (neutral stimulus) paired with food (unconditioned stimulus) → dog salivates → eventually bell alone produces salivation (conditioned response).

What is operant conditioning? — Learning through consequences. B.F. Skinner: Behavior followed by pleasant consequences (reinforcement) is more likely to be repeated; behavior followed by unpleasant consequences (punishment) is less likely. Uses a Skinner box (operant chamber).

What are positive and negative reinforcement? — Positive reinforcement: Adding something pleasant to increase behaviour (e.g., giving a treat for good work). Negative reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to increase behaviour (e.g., removing pain → taking medication increases). NOT the same as punishment.

What is the cognitive perspective? — Focuses on internal mental processes — how people perceive, think, remember, and solve problems. Mind compared to a computer (information processing model). Key figures: Piaget (cognitive development), Beck (cognitive therapy), Neisser (coined "cognitive psychology").

What are Piaget's four stages of cognitive development? — Sensorimotor (0–2yr): Object permanence develops. Preoperational (2–7yr): Language, symbolic play — egocentric; no conservation. Concrete operational (7–11yr): Conservation, logical thinking about concrete objects. Formal operational (11+yr): Abstract and hypothetical thinking.

What is the humanistic perspective? — Focuses on free will, personal growth, and subjective experience. Humans are inherently good and have potential for self-actualisation. Key figures: Abraham Maslow (hierarchy of needs), Carl Rogers (person-centered therapy, unconditional positive regard).

What is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs? — A pyramid of human motivations (lowest must be met first): 1. Physiological (food, water, sleep). 2. Safety (security, stability). 3. Love/Belonging (relationships). 4. Esteem (achievement, respect). 5. Self-actualisation (reaching full potential).

What is the sociocultural perspective? — Behaviour is shaped by social context, culture, and interpersonal relationships. Key figures: Vygotsky (Zone of Proximal Development, language and thought), Bandura (social learning theory), Bronfenbrenner (ecological systems theory).

What is Bandura's Social Learning Theory? — Learning occurs through observation and imitation of others (models), not just direct reinforcement. Key concepts: Observation, Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation. Famous study: Bobo doll experiment — children imitated aggressive behavior seen in adults.

What is Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development? — Eight stages across the lifespan, each with a psychosocial conflict to resolve. Examples: Trust vs Mistrust (infancy), Identity vs Role Confusion (adolescence), Integrity vs Despair (old age). Successful resolution leads to psychological virtues (hope, fidelity, wisdom).

What is Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)? — The gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable other (MKO). Learning occurs optimally within the ZPD. Scaffolding = support provided within the ZPD, gradually withdrawn as competence grows.

What is the evolutionary perspective in psychology? — Explains behaviour in terms of natural selection — psychological traits and behaviours that enhanced survival and reproduction were naturally selected. Focuses on universal behaviors across cultures. Key figures: Darwin, David Buss (evolutionary psychology of mating).

What is Attachment Theory and who developed it? — John Bowlby proposed that infants have an innate need to form close emotional bonds with caregivers for protection and emotional security. Mary Ainsworth identified three attachment styles through the Strange Situation: Secure, Anxious-avoidant, Anxious-ambivalent. (Disorganized added later by Main & Solomon.)

What are Ainsworth's attachment types? — Secure (~65%): Uses caregiver as safe base; mild distress when separated; easily comforted. Anxious-avoidant (~20%): Little distress on separation; ignores caregiver on return. Anxious-ambivalent (~15%): Very distressed on separation; not easily comforted on return — clingy.

What is the nature vs nurture debate? — Whether behaviour is primarily determined by genetics (nature) or environment and experience (nurture). Modern consensus: both interact — interactionist approach. Twin studies (especially identical twins raised apart) used to separate genetic and environmental influences.

What is the cognitive triad (Beck)? — Aaron Beck's model of depression: three patterns of negative automatic thinking about: (1) The self ("I am worthless"). (2) The world ("Everything is hopeless"). (3) The future ("Things will never get better"). Basis of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT).

What is Gestalt psychology? — A school of psychology (Wertheimer, Köhler, Koffka) proposing that the mind perceives wholes, not just the sum of parts. "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." Key principles: proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, figure-ground.

What did William James contribute to psychology? — Often called the "father of American psychology." Wrote the first major psychology textbook (Principles of Psychology, 1890). Championed functionalism — studying the purpose/function of mental processes rather than their structure (structuralism).

What is Wundt's contribution to psychology? — Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany (1879) — marking the formal beginning of psychology as a scientific discipline. Used introspection (trained subjects reporting on conscious experiences) to study the structure of the mind (structuralism).

What are the main defense mechanisms according to Freud? — Repression: Pushing unacceptable thoughts into the unconscious. Denial: Refusing to accept reality. Projection: Attributing own feelings to others. Displacement: Redirecting emotions to a safer target. Rationalization: Creating logical reasons for unacceptable feelings. Regression: Returning to childlike behavior under stress.

What is the eclectic approach in psychology? — Using a combination of theoretical perspectives and therapeutic techniques rather than rigidly applying one approach. Most modern clinicians are eclectic — choosing whatever theory or therapy best fits a particular client or problem. Reflects the complexity of human behavior.