Psychology and Sociology
25 flashcards
~13 min
Developmental Psychology
Understand how humans develop from birth to old age with this comprehensive developmental psychology flashcard deck. Developmental psychology examines the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that occur throughout the lifespan — and the the...
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Understand how humans develop from birth to old age with this comprehensive developmental psychology flashcard deck. Developmental psychology examines the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that occur throughout the lifespan — and the theories that explain them.
This deck covers cognitive development (Piaget and Vygotsky), attachment theory (Bowlby and Ainsworth), moral development (Kohlberg), psychosocial development (Erikson), language acquisition theories, adolescence and identity, adult development, ageing, and key research methods in developmental psychology. Essential for AP Psychology, A-Level Psychology, GCSE, and university developmental psychology courses.
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The scientific study of how and why humans change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally across the entire lifespan — from conception to death. Examines both continuity (gradual change) and stages (distinct periods).
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight. According to Piaget, it develops during the sensorimotor stage (~8 months). Tested with the "A-not-B error" — infant looks for an object where it was last seen, not where it moved to.
The understanding that the quantity of a substance remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement. Develops during the concrete operational stage (~7 years). Classic test: equal amounts of liquid appear different when poured into differently shaped containers. Pre-operational children lack conservation.
The inability to see the world from another's perspective — the child assumes everyone sees/feels/thinks the same as they do. Piaget's Three Mountains Task: Children choose the view they see when asked to show what a doll on the opposite side would see. Declines around age 6–7.
The ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that differ from one's own. Tested with the False Belief Task (e.g., Sally-Anne task). Typically develops around 4 years of age. Delayed or absent in autism spectrum disorder.
ZPD (Vygotsky): The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with skilled guidance. Scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, Ross): Temporary, adjustable support provided to a learner within their ZPD — gradually reduced as competence grows.
Three levels (each with two stages): Pre-conventional (stages 1–2): Morality based on punishment avoidance and self-interest. Conventional (stages 3–4): Morality based on social approval and following rules/laws. Post-conventional (stages 5–6): Morality based on social contracts and universal ethical principles.
Kohlberg's famous moral dilemma: Should Heinz steal an overpriced drug to save his dying wife? Participants' reasoning (not just their yes/no answer) is analysed to assess their stage of moral development. The reasoning process, not the decision, determines the stage.
Behaviourist (Skinner): Language learned through imitation and reinforcement. Nativist (Chomsky): Humans have an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD) — universal grammar. Social interactionist (Bruner): Language develops through social interaction — Language Acquisition Support System (LASS) provided by caregivers.
The period during which language is most easily and naturally acquired (generally birth to puberty). After puberty, language learning becomes much harder. Evidence: feral children (e.g., Genie — not exposed to language until age 13) never achieved full language competence.
0–6 months: Cooing. 6–12 months: Babbling (all infants, even deaf ones initially). 12 months: First words (holophrases — one word = whole sentence). 18–24 months: Two-word utterances. 24–30 months: Telegraphic speech (3+ words). 3–5 years: Sentences, grammar, rapid vocabulary expansion.
Stage 5: Identity vs Role Confusion (approximately 12–18 years). The key challenge is forming a coherent personal identity — who am I? What do I believe? What will I do? Failure leads to role confusion and difficulty committing to relationships or careers.
Expanded Erikson's adolescent stage into four statuses based on exploration and commitment: Identity diffusion (no exploration, no commitment). Foreclosure (commitment without exploration). Moratorium (exploring, not yet committed). Identity achievement (explored and committed).
Layers of environmental influence on development: Microsystem (immediate environment: family, school). Mesosystem (interactions between microsystems). Exosystem (indirect influences: parents' workplace). Macrosystem (cultural values, laws). Chronosystem (changes over time).
Inborn predispositions affecting how a child responds to the world. Easy (~40%): Regular routines, adaptable, positive mood. Difficult (~10%): Irregular, intense reactions, slow to adapt. Slow-to-warm-up (~15%): Low activity, withdraw from new situations initially, gradually adapt. Remaining 35% = mixed.
Authoritative: High warmth + high control — sets clear rules with explanations; responsive to child's needs. Best outcomes. Authoritarian: Low warmth + high control — strict obedience; little warmth. Permissive: High warmth + low control — few rules; child-centred. Neglectful: Low warmth + low control — worst outcomes. (Baumrind)
Piaget underestimated children's abilities — later research shows object permanence at ~3.5 months (Bower), and children are less egocentric than Piaget claimed (Hughes' "Policeman doll" study). He also overemphasised individual exploration and ignored social and cultural context (Vygotsky's critique).
Longitudinal: Same participants followed over many years — tracks individual change but time-consuming and subject to dropout. Cross-sectional: Different age groups studied at one time — faster and cheaper but cohort effects can confound results. Sequential design combines both.
A structured laboratory procedure with 8 episodes involving a mother and stranger leaving and returning. Measures quality of attachment in infants aged 12–18 months by assessing separation anxiety, willingness to explore, and response to reunion. Identifies secure, avoidant, and ambivalent attachment styles.
Continuity: Development is a gradual, smooth, continuous process (behaviourist view). Discontinuity: Development occurs in distinct stages with qualitative jumps between them (Piaget, Erikson view). Most modern developmentalists see development as both continuous and discontinuous depending on the domain.
Ageism: Prejudice or discrimination based on age (usually toward older adults). Research shows cognitive ageing is complex: Fluid intelligence (speed, novel problem-solving) declines. Crystallised intelligence (accumulated knowledge, vocabulary) is maintained or increases. Most older adults remain cognitively competent.
Likens the mind to a computer — development involves increasing processing speed, working memory capacity, and strategy use. Unlike Piaget's stages, development is continuous. Explains why children improve at tasks as they age even within Piaget's stages.
An early stage of language development (around 2 years) where children speak in short, simple sentences containing mainly nouns and verbs — leaving out grammar words like "the", "is", "and". Example: "Daddy go" instead of "Daddy is going." Rich in content, low in grammatical words.
The transition period from childhood to adulthood (~10–19 years). Changes: Physical (puberty — hormones, growth spurt, primary and secondary sexual characteristics). Cognitive (formal operational thinking). Social/emotional (identity formation, peer relationships become more important, risk-taking).
Five stages (not necessarily in order, not all experienced): Denial (shock, disbelief). Anger (frustration, "why me?"). Bargaining ("if only..."). Depression (sadness, grief). Acceptance (coming to terms). Widely known but criticised as oversimplified — grief is now understood as highly individual and non-linear.